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Mou司ntEverest,mountainpeakintheHimalayasofsouthernAsia,considere然烟特谁鲜密dthehighestmoun360问答tainintheworld.MountEverestissituat车移过增edattheedgeoftheTibetanPlateau(QingZangGaoyuan),ontheborderofNepalandtheTibetAutonomousRegiono使光培刘易育fChina.

Mou班非钱入么司顺ntEverestwasknownasPeakXVuntil1856,whenitwasnamedforSirGeorg歌晶后长且带希挥山穿eEverest,thesurveyorgen通商爱烟矛席器引育送就eralofIndiafrom1830to1843.Thenamingcoincidedwithanofficialannounce飞短扬乐粒般纪毛mentofthemountain'sheight,takena附件特吧甲具stheaverageofs德层定养呼希题该ixseparatemeasurementsmadebytheGreatTrigonometri将脸calSurveyin1850.Most概祖Nepalipeop加教另真右年越终lerefertothemountainasSagarma族张植一概复克技开剂现tha,meani威们波风每村ng“Forehea刘米利另序孙六坚洲dintheSk均地量可刚五台另y.”SpeakersofTibetanlanguages,includingtheSherpapeopleofnorthernNepal,refertothemountainasChomolungma,Tibetanfor“GoddessMotheroftheWorld.”

TheheightofMountEveresthasbeendeterminedtobe8,850m(29,035ft).Themountain’sactualheight,andtheclaimthatEverestisthehighestmountainintheworld,havelongbeendisputed.Butscientificsurveyscompletedintheearly1990scontinuedtosupportevidencethatEverestisthehighestmountainintheworld.Infact,themountainisrisingafewmillimeterseachyearduetogeologicalforces.GlobalPositioningSystem(GPS)hasbeeninstalledonMountEverestforthepurposeofdetectingslightratesofgeologicaluplift.

MountEverest,liketherestoftheHimalayas,rosefromtheflooroftheancientTethysSea.TherangewascreatedwhentheEurasiancontinentalplatecollidedwiththeIndiansubcontinentalplateabout30to50millionyearsago.EventuallythemarinelimestonewasforcedupwardtobecomethecharacteristicyellowbandonthetopofMountEverest.Beneaththeshallowmarinerockliesthehighlymetamorphosedblackgneiss(foliated,orlayered,rock)ofPrecambriantime,aremnantoftheoriginalcontinentalplatesthatcollidedandforceduptheHimalayas.

MountEverestiscoveredwithhugeglaciersthatdescendfromthemainpeakanditsnearbysatellitepeaks.Themountainitselfisapyramid-shapedhorn,sculptedbytheerosivepoweroftheglacialiceintothreemassivefacesandthreemajorridges,whichsoartothesummitfromthenorth,south,andwestandseparatetheglaciers.Fromthesouthsideofthemountain,inaclockwisedirection,themainglaciersaretheKhumbuglacier,whichflowsnortheastbeforeturningsouthwest;theWestRongbukglacierinthenorthwest;theRongbukglacierinthenorth;theEastRongbukglacierinthenortheast;andtheKangshungglacierintheeast.

TheclimateofMountEverestisnaturallyextreme.InJanuary,thecoldestmonth,thesummittemperatureaverages-36°C(-33°F)andcandropaslowas-60°C(-76°F).InJuly,thewarmestmonth,theaveragesummittemperatureis-19°C(-2°F).Atnotimeoftheyeardoesthetemperatureonthesummitriseabovefreezing.Inwinterandspringtheprevailingwesterlywindblowsagainstthepeakandaroundthesummit.Moisture-ladenairrisesfromthesouthslopesoftheHimalayasandcondensesintoawhite,pennant-shapedcloudpointingeast;this“flagcloud”sometimesenablesclimberstopredictstorms.Whenthewindreaches80km/h(50mph),theflagcloudisatarightangletothepeak.Whenthewindisweaker,thecloudtiltsup;whenitisstronger,theflagtiltsdown.

FromJunethroughSeptemberthemountainisinthegripoftheIndianmonsoon,duringwhichwindandprecipitationblowinfromtheIndianOcean.Massesofcloudsandviolentsnowstormsarecommonduringthistime.FromNovembertoFebruary,inthedeadofwinter,theglobalsouthwest-flowingjetstreammovesinfromthenorth,beatingthesummitwithwindsofhurricaneforcethatmayreachmorethan285km/h(177mph).Evenduringthepre-andpost-monsoonclimbingseasons,strongwindsmayarisesuddenly.Whensuchstormsdevelop,sandandsmallstonescarriedaloft,aswellasbeatingsnowandice,poseproblemsforclimbers.

Precipitationfallsmostlyduringthemonsoonseason,whilewinterstormsbetweenDecemberandMarchaccountfortherest.Unexpectedstorms,however,candropupto3m(10ft)ofsnowonunsuspectingclimbersandmountainhikers.

BaseCamp,whichservesasarestingareaandbaseofoperationsforclimbersorganizingtheirattemptsforthesummit,islocatedontheKhumbuglacieratanelevationof5,400m(17,600ft);itreceivesanaverageof450mm(18in)ofprecipitationayear.

Traditionally,thepeoplewholivenearMountEveresthavereveredthemountainsoftheHimalayasandimaginedthemasthehomesofthegods.Becausethepeakswereconsideredsacred,nolocalpeoplescaledthembeforetheearly1900s.However,whenforeignexpeditionsbroughttouristdollarsandWesternideastothearea,peopleoftheSherpaethnicgroupbegantoserveashigh-altitudeportersforthem.BecauseNepalhadbeenclosedtoforeignerssincetheearly1800s,allpre-WorldWarII(1939-1945)EverestexpeditionswereforcedtorecruitSherpaportersfromDārjiling(Darjeeling),India,thencirclethroughTibetandapproachEverestfromthenorth.

In1913BritishexplorerJohnNoelsneakedintoTibet,whichwasalsoclosedatthetime,andmadeapreliminarysurveyofthemountain’snorthernapproaches,wherethetopographyislessvariedthanonthesouthernside.In1921theBritishbeganamajorexplorationofthenorthsideofthemountain,ledbyGeorgeLeighMallory.Mallory’sexpedition,andanotherthattookplacesoonafterward,wereunabletoovercomestrongwinds,avalanches,andotherhazardstoreachthesummit.In1924athirdBritishexpeditionresultedinthedisappearanceofMalloryandaclimbingcompaniononly240m(800ft)fromthesummit.Moreattemptsweremadethroughoutthe1930sandintothe1940s.Then,withtheconquestofTibetbyChinaintheearly1950s,theregionwasclosedtoforeignersagainandthenorthernapproachestothemountainweresealedoff.

In1950,theyearafterNepalopenedtoforeigners,W.H.TilmanandC.HoustonmadethefirstascentfromthesouthandbecamethefirstpeopletoseeintotheKhumbucirque(asteepbasinattheheadofamountainvalley).Anumberofattemptstoreachthemountain’ssummitfollowedintheearly1950s.In1952theSwissalmostsucceededinclimbingthemountainfromtheSouthCol,whichisamajorpassbetweentheEverestandLhotsepeaksandisnowthemostpopularclimbingroutetothesummit.OnMay29,1953,underthetenthBritishexpeditionflagandtheleadershipofJohnHunt,EdmundHillaryofNewZealandandSherpaTenzingNorgayofNepalsuccessfullycompletedthefirstascentofMountEverestviatheSouthCol.Severalexpeditionshavesincefollowed.In1975JunkoTabeiofJapanbecamethefirstwomantosummitMountEverest.Later,in1978,AustriansReinholdMessnerandPeterHabelerestablishedanewandrigorousstandardbyclimbingtothesummitwithouttheuseofsupplementaloxygen,which,becauseofthethinairatEverest’shighaltitude,isimportantfortheenergy,health,andthinkingskillsoftheclimbers.In1991Sherpas,whohadcarriedthesuppliesforsomanyforeignersupMountEverest,completedtheirownsuccessfulexpeditiontothesummit.Bythemid-1990s,4,000peoplehadattemptedtoclimbEverest—660ofthemsuccessfullyreachedthesummitandmorethan140ofthemdiedtrying.

ThedifficultiesofclimbingMountEverestarelegendary.Massivesnowandiceavalanchesareaconstantthreattoallexpeditions.Theavalanchesthunderoffthepeaksrepeatedly,sometimesburyingvalleys,glaciers,andclimbingroutes.Campsarechosentoavoidknownavalanchepaths,andclimberswhomakeascentsthroughavalancheterraintrytocrossattimeswhentheweatherismostappropriate.Hurricane-forcewindsareawell-knownhazardonEverest,andmanypeoplehavebeenendangeredorkilledwhentheirtentscollapsedorwererippedtoshredsbythegales.Hypothermia,thedramaticlossofbodyheat,isalsoamajoranddebilitatingprobleminthisregionofhighwindsandlowtemperatures.

TenzingNorgayontheSummitofEverest

TenzingNorgayontheSummitofEverest

Thisphotograph,takenbyEdmundHillary,showsTenzingNorgayonthesummitofMountEverest.Thetwomenbecamethefirstpeopletoscalethesummitofthemountain,thehighestintheworld,onMay29,1953.

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AnotherhazardfacingEverestclimbersisthefamousKhumbuicefall,whichislocatednotfaraboveBaseCampandiscausedbytherapidmovementoftheKhumbuglacieroverthesteeprockunderneath.Themovementbreakstheiceintosérac(large,pointedmassesofice)cliffsandcolumnsseparatedbyhugecrevasses,andcausesrepeatedicefallsacrosstheroutebetweenBaseCampandCampI.Manypeoplehavediedinthisarea.Exposedcrevassesmaybeeasytoavoid,butthoseburiedundersnowcanformtreacheroussnowbridgesthroughwhichunwaryclimberscanfall.

ThestandardclimbofMountEverestfromthesouthsideascendstheKhumbuglaciertoBaseCampat5,400m(17,600ft).TypicalexpeditionsusefourcampsaboveBaseCamp;thesecampsgivetheclimbersanopportunitytorestandacclimate(adapt)tothehighaltitude.TheroutefromBaseCampthroughthegreatKhumbuicefalluptoCampIat5,900m(19,500ft)isdifficultanddangerous;itusuallytakesonetothreeweekstoestablishbecausesuppliesmustbecarriedupthemountaininseveralseparatetrips.OnceCampII,at6,500m(21,300ft),hasbeensuppliedinthesamemannerusingbothBaseCampandCampIasbases,climberstypicallybreakdownBaseCampandmakethetrekfromtheretoCampIIinonecontinuouseffort.Onceacclimatized,theclimberscanmakethemovetoCampIIinfivetosixhours.CampIIIisthenestablishednearthecirqueoftheKhumbuglacierat7,300m(24,000ft).TherouteupthecirqueheadwallfromCampIIItotheSouthColandCampIVat7,900m(26,000ft)ishighlystrenuousandtakesaboutfourtoeighthours.TheSouthColisacold,windy,anddesolateplaceofrocks,snowslabs,litteredemptyoxygenbottles,andothertrash.

DeadlyDayonMountEverest

DeadlyDayonMountEverest

InMay1996achainofamateurclimbersandprofessionalguideswaittheirturntoascendtheHillaryStep,arockface,12-m(40-ft)tall,(center)just30m(100ft)belowthesummitofMountEverest.ThisphotographwastakenbyguideScottFischeronwhatbecameoneofthedeadliestdayseveronMountEverest.Fischerandseveralotherclimbersperishedjusthourslaterwhenasudden,severestormtrappedseveralclimbingpartieshighonthemountain.Inall,12climbersdied.Somesurvivorsandotherobserversbelievethatthetragedywasdueinparttocrowdedsummitconditions—thereweresimplytoomanyclimbers,especiallyless-experiencedclimbers,tryingtosummitMountEverestatthesametime.

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FromtheSouthColtothesummitisaclimbofonly900verticalm(3,000verticalft),althoughitsfierceexposuretoadverseweatherandsteepdrop-offsposesmanychallenges.Thesectionbetween8,530m(28,000ft)andtheSouthSummitat8,750m(28,700ft)isparticularlytreacherousbecauseofthesteepnessandunstablesnow.FromtheSouthSummitthereremainsanother90verticalm(300verticalft)alongaterrifyingknife-edgedridge.Theexposureisextreme,withthepossibilityofhugeverticaldropsintoTibetontherightanddownthesouthwestfaceontheleft.Alittlemorethan30verticalm(100verticalft)fromthesummitisa12-m(40-ft)chimneyacrossarockcliffknownastheHillaryStep;thisisoneofthegreatesttechnicalchallengesoftheclimb.

AsthepopularityofclimbingEveresthasincreasedinrecentyears,sohavesafetyproblems.TopaythehighclimbingpermitfeechargedbytheNepalesegovernment,manyexperiencedclimbershaverecruitedwealthy,amateurclimbersasteammates.Thecombinationofinexperience,crowdedsummitconditions(morethan30havebeenknowntosummitthepeakonthesameday),andextremeweatherconditionshasledtoanumberoftragediesinwhichclientsandcompetentguidesalikehavediedattemptingtheclimb.

ThelargenumberoftrekkersandclimberswhovisitNepalandtheEverestregioncontributetothelocaleconomybutalsocauseseriousenvironmentalimpact.Suchimpactincludestheburningofwoodforfuel,pollutionintheformofhumanwasteandtrash,andabandonedclimbinggear.Althoughsomeclimbinggearisrecycledbylocalresidentseitherfortheirownuseorforresale,itisestimatedthatmorethan50tonsofplastic,glass,andmetalweredumpedbetween1953andthemid-1990sinwhathasbeencalled“theworld’shighestjunkyard.”Upontheice,wherefewlocalpeoplego,thenormistothrowtrashintothemanycrevasses,whereitisgroundupandconsumedbytheactionoftheice.Afewbitsandpiecesshowuponthelowerpartoftheglaciermanyyearslaterastheyarechurnedbacktothesurface,althoughorganicmatterisgenerallyconsumedorscavengedbylocalwildlife.Atthehigh-elevationcamps,usedoxygenbottlesarestrewneverywhere.

EffortshavebeenmadetoreducethenegativeenvironmentalimpactonMountEverest.TheNepalesegovernmenthasbeenusingaportionofclimbingfeestocleanupthearea.In1976,withaidfromSirEdmundHillary’sHimalayanTrustandtheNepalesegovernment,theSagarmathaNationalParkwasestablishedtopreservetheremainingsoilandforestaroundMountEverest.Bythemid-1990stheparkcomprised1,240sqkm(480sqmi).Trekkingandclimbinggroupsmustbringtheirownfueltothepark(usuallybutaneandkerosene),andthecuttingofwoodisnowprohibited.BecausethefreedomsofSherpashavebeenrestrictedbytheparkrules,theyhavenotbeensympathetictotheexistenceofthepark.Additionally,theSagarmathaPollutionControl,fundedbytheWorldWildlifeFundandtheHimalayanTrust,wasestablishedin1991tohelppreserveEverest’senvironment.Climbingactivitycontinuestoincrease,however,andtheenvironmentalfutureoftheMountEverestarearemainsuncertain.